Individual cells are color-coded based on their identity and signaling activity using a protein circuit technology developed by the Coyle Lab. Just as a radio allows you to listen to an individual frequency, this technology allows researchers to tune into the specific “radio station” of each cell through genetically encoded proteins from a bacterial system called MinDE. The proteins generate an oscillating fluorescent signal that transmits information about cell shape, state, and identity that can be decoded using digital signal processing tools originally designed for telecommunications. The approach allows researchers to look at the dynamics of a single cell in the presence of many other cells.

Related to image 7021.

The marine bacterium Vibrio harveyi glows when near its kind. This luminescence, which results from biochemical reactions, is part of the chemical communication used by the organisms to assess their own population size and distinguish themselves from other types of bacteria. But V. harveyi only light up when part of a large group. This communication, called quorum sensing, speaks for itself here on a lab dish, where more densely packed areas of the bacteria show up blue. Other types of bacteria use quorum sensing to release toxins, trigger disease, and evade the immune system.

Both instruments shown were developed by CellFree Sciences of Yokohama, Japan. The instrument on the left, the GeneDecoder 1000, can generate 384 proteins from their corresponding genes, or gene fragments, overnight. It is used to screen for properties such as level of protein production and degree of solubility. The instrument on the right, the Protemist Protein Synthesizer, is used to generate the larger amounts of protein needed for protein structure determinations.

Nodes of Ranvier are short gaps in the myelin sheath surrounding myelinated nerve cells (axons). Myelin insulates axons, and the node of Ranvier is where the axon is exposed to the extracellular environment, allowing for the transmission of action potentials at these nodes via ion flows between the inside and outside of the axon. The image shows a cross-section through the node, with the surrounding extracellular matrix encasing and supporting the axon shown in cyan.

The receptor is shown bound to an antagonist, JDTic.

Sketch of an egg cell.

The cerebellum of a mouse is shown here in cross-section. The cerebellum is the brain's locomotion control center. Every time you shoot a basketball, tie your shoe or chop an onion, your cerebellum fires into action. Found at the base of your brain, the cerebellum is a single layer of tissue with deep folds like an accordion. People with damage to this region of the brain often have difficulty with balance, coordination and fine motor skills. For a higher magnification, see image 3371.

This image was part of the Life: Magnified exhibit that ran from June 3, 2014, to January 21, 2015, at Dulles International Airport.

The nucleus of a human fibroblast cell with chromatin—a substance made up of DNA and proteins—shown in various colors. Fibroblasts are one of the most common types of cells in mammalian connective tissue, and they play a key role in wound healing and tissue repair. This image was captured using Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy (STORM).

Related to images 6888 and 6893.

Wound healing requires the action of stem cells. In mice that lack the Sept2/ARTS gene, stem cells involved in wound healing live longer and wounds heal faster and more thoroughly than in normal mice. This confocal microscopy image from a mouse lacking the Sept2/ARTS gene shows a tail wound in the process of healing. Cell nuclei are in blue. Red and orange mark hair follicle stem cells (hair follicle stem cells activate to cause hair regrowth, which indicates healing). See more information in the article in Science.

Learn about some of the different jobs in a scientific laboratory and how researchers work as a team to make discoveries. Discover more resources from NIGMS’ Pathways collaboration with Scholastic. View the video on YouTube for closed captioning.

An axolotl—a type of salamander—that has been genetically modified so that its developing nervous system glows purple and its Schwann cell nuclei appear light blue. Schwann cells insulate and provide nutrients to peripheral nerve cells. Researchers often study axolotls for their extensive regenerative abilities. They can regrow tails, limbs, spinal cords, brains, and more. The researcher who took this image focuses on the role of the peripheral nervous system during limb regeneration.

This image was captured using a stereo microscope.

Related to images 6927 and 6928.

Proteins in the neural tissues of this zebrafish embryo direct cells to line up and form the neural tube, which will become the spinal cord and brain. Studies of zebrafish embryonic development may help pinpoint the underlying cause of common neural tube defects--such as spina bifida--which occur in about 1 in 1,000 newborn children.

Insect brains, like the honeybee brain shown here, are very different in shape from human brains. Despite that, bee and human brains have a lot in common, including many of the genes and neurochemicals they rely on in order to function. The bright-green spots in this image indicate the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase, an enzyme that allows the brain to produce dopamine. Dopamine is involved in many important functions, such as the ability to experience pleasure. This image was captured using confocal microscopy.

Stained glomeruli in the kidney. The kidney is an essential organ responsible for disposing wastes from the body and for maintaining healthy ion levels in the blood. It works like a purifier by pulling break-down products of metabolism, such as urea and ammonium, from the bloodstream for excretion in urine. The glomerulus is a structure that helps filter the waste compounds from the blood. It consists of a network of capillaries enclosed within a Bowman's capsule of a nephron, which is the structure in which ions exit or re-enter the blood in the kidney.

Cdc42, a member of the Rho family of small guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) proteins, regulates multiple cell functions, including motility, proliferation, apoptosis, and cell morphology. In order to fulfill these diverse roles, the timing and location of Cdc42 activation must be tightly controlled. Klaus Hahn and his research group use special dyes designed to report protein conformational changes and interactions, here in living neutrophil cells. Warmer colors in this image indicate higher levels of activation. Cdc42 looks to be activated at cell protrusions.

Related to images 2451, 2452, and 2454.

A replica of a human retina grown from stem cells. It shows rod photoreceptors (nerve cells responsible for dark vision) in green and red/green cones (nerve cells responsible for red and green color vision) in red. The cell nuclei are stained blue. This image was captured using a confocal microscope.

Animation for the cisternae maturation model of Golgi transport.

This montage of tiny, transparent C. elegans--or roundworms--may offer insight into understanding human infertility. Researchers used fluorescent dyes to label the worm cells and watch the process of sex cell division, called meiosis, unfold as nuclei (blue) move through the tube-like gonads. Such visualization helps the scientists identify mechanisms that enable these roundworms to reproduce successfully. Because meiosis is similar in all sexually reproducing organisms, what the scientists learn could apply to humans.

DNA (blue) and actin (red) in cultured fibroblast cells.

This video shows a controlled outbreak of transmissible avian flu among people living in Thailand. Red indicates areas of infection while blue indicates areas where a combination of control measures were implemented. The video shows how control measures contained the infection in 90 days, before it spread elsewhere.

Recombinant proteins such as the prion protein shown here are often used to model how proteins misfold and sometimes polymerize in neurodegenerative disorders. This prion protein was expressed in E. coli, purified and fibrillized at pH 7. Image taken in 2004 for a research project by Roger Moore, Ph.D., at Rocky Mountain Laboratories that was published in 2007 in Biochemistry. This image was not used in the publication.

The cone cell of the eye allows you to see in color. Appears in the NIGMS booklet Inside the Cell.

This animation shows the effect of exposure to hypochlorous acid, which is found in certain types of immune cells, on bacterial proteins. The proteins unfold and stick to one another, leading to cell death.

A light microscope image of a cell from the endosperm of an African globe lily (Scadoxus katherinae). This is one frame of a time-lapse sequence that shows cell division in action. The lily is considered a good organism for studying cell division because its chromosomes are much thicker and easier to see than human ones. Staining shows microtubules in red and chromosomes in blue. Here, condensed chromosomes are clearly visible and are separating to form the cores of two new cells.

Related to images 1011, 1012, 1013, 1014, 1015, 1016, 1017, 1018, 1019, and 1021.

Cells in an early-stage fruit fly embryo, showing the DIAP1 protein (pink), an inhibitor of apoptosis.

Scientists revealed a detailed image of the genetic defect that causes myotonic dystrophy type 2 and used that information to design drug candidates to counteract the disease.

A computer-generated sketch of a DNA origami folded into a flower-and-bird structure. See also related image 3690.

Multiple anthrax bacteria (green) being enveloped by an immune system cell (purple). Anthrax bacteria live in soil and form dormant spores that can survive for decades. When animals eat or inhale these spores, the bacteria activate and rapidly increase in number. Today, a highly effective and widely used vaccine has made the disease uncommon in domesticated animals and rare in humans.

This image was part of the Life: Magnified exhibit that ran from June 3, 2014, to January 21, 2015, at Dulles International Airport.

Muscles stretch and contract when we walk, and skin splits open and knits back together when we get a paper cut. To study these contractile forces, researchers built a three-dimensional scaffold that mimics tissue in an organism. Researchers poured a mixture of cells and elastic collagen over microscopic posts in a dish. Then they studied how the cells pulled and released the posts as they formed a web of tissue. To measure forces between posts, the researchers developed a computer model. Their findings--which show that contractile forces vary throughout the tissue--could have a wide range of medical applications.

Shortly after a pregnant woman gives birth, her breasts start to secrete milk. This process is triggered by hormonal and genetic cues, including the protein Elf5. Scientists discovered that Elf5 also has another job--it staves off cancer. Early in the development of breast cancer, human breast cells often lose Elf5 proteins. Cells without Elf5 change shape and spread readily--properties associated with metastasis. This image shows cells in the mouse mammary gland that are lacking Elf5, leading to the overproduction of other proteins (red) that increase the likelihood of metastasis.

Individual cells are color-coded based on their identity and signaling activity using a protein circuit technology developed by the Coyle Lab. Just as a radio allows you to listen to an individual frequency, this technology allows researchers to tune into the specific “radio station” of each cell through genetically encoded proteins from a bacterial system called MinDE. The proteins generate an oscillating fluorescent signal that transmits information about cell shape, state, and identity that can be decoded using digital signal processing tools originally designed for telecommunications. The approach allows researchers to look at the dynamics of a single cell in the presence of many other cells.

Related to video 7022.

A 3D reconstruction, created using cryo-electron microscopy, of an ion channel known as the full-length serotonin receptor in complex with the antinausea drug granisetron (orange). Ion channels are proteins in cell membranes that help regulate many processes.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), shown here as tiny purple spheres, causes the disease known as AIDS (for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). HIV can infect multiple cells in your body, including brain cells, but its main target is a cell in the immune system called the CD4 lymphocyte (also called a T-cell or CD4 cell).

Microscopy image of a tongue. One in a series of two, see image 5810

Two adult fruit flies (Drosophila)

Image showing that the edge zone (top of image) of the quail embryo shows no proliferating cells (cyan), unlike the interior zone (bottom of image). Non-proliferating cell nuclei are labeled green. This image was obtained as part of a study to understand cell migration in embryos. More specifically, cell proliferation at the edge of the embryo was studied by examining the cellular uptake of a chemical compound called BrDU, which incorporates into the DNA during the S-phase of the cell cycle. Here, the cells that are positive for BrDU uptake are labeled in cyan, while other non-proliferating cell nuclei are labeled green. Notice that the vast majority of BrDU+ cells are located far away from the edge, indicating that edge cells are mostly non-proliferating. An NIGMS grant to Professor Garcia was used to purchase the confocal microscope that collected this image. Related to image 2807 and video 2809.

NIGMS staff are located in the Natcher Building on the NIH campus.

This image shows the structure of a synapse, or junction between two nerve cells in three dimensions. From the brain of a mouse.

For thousands of years, Chinese herbalists have treated malaria using Chang Shan, a root extract from a type of hydrangea that grows in Tibet and Nepal. Recent studies have suggested Chang Shan can also reduce scar formation, treat multiple sclerosis and even slow cancer progression.

Skins cells were reprogrammed into heart muscle cells. The cells highlighted in green are remaining skin cells. Red indicates a protein that is unique to heart muscle. The technique used to reprogram the skin cells into heart cells could one day be used to mend heart muscle damaged by disease or heart attack. Image and caption information courtesy of the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine.

The membrane that surrounds a cell is made up of proteins and lipids. Depending on the membrane's location and role in the body, lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the membrane, with the remainder being proteins. Cholesterol (green), which is not found in plant cells, is a type of lipid that helps stiffen the membrane.

The genetic code in DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated into proteins with specific sequences. During transcription, nucleotides in DNA are copied into RNA, where they are read three at a time to encode the amino acids in a protein. Many parts of a protein fold as the amino acids are strung together.

See image 2509 for an unlabeled version of this illustration.

Featured in The Structures of Life.

The green spots in this image are clumps of protein inside yeast cells that are deficient in both zinc and a protein called Tsa1 that prevents clumping. Protein clumping plays a role in many diseases, including Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, where proteins clump together in the brain. Zinc deficiency within a cell can cause proteins to mis-fold and eventually clump together. Normally, in yeast, Tsa1 codes for so-called "chaperone proteins" which help proteins in stressed cells, such as those with a zinc deficiency, fold correctly. The research behind this image was published in 2013 in the Journal of Biological Chemistry.

Proteins are made of amino acids hooked end-to-end like beads on a necklace. To become active, proteins must twist and fold into their final, or "native," conformation. A protein's final shape enables it to accomplish its function. Featured in The Structures of Life.

The green in this image highlights a protein called TonB, which is produced by many gram-negative bacteria, including those that cause typhoid fever, meningitis and dysentery. TonB lets bacteria take up iron from the host's body, which they need to survive. More information about the research behind this image can be found in a Biomedical Beat Blog posting from August 2013.

Actin is an essential protein in a cell's skeleton (cytoskeleton). It forms a dense network of thin filaments in the cell. Here, researchers have used a technique called stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) to visualize the actin network in a cell in three dimensions. The actin strands were labeled with a dye called Alexa Fluor 647-phalloidin.  This image appears in a study published by Nature Methods, which reports how researchers use STORM to visualize the cytoskeleton.

Like a watch wrapped around a wrist, a special enzyme encircles the double helix to repair a broken strand of DNA. Without molecules that can mend such breaks, cells can malfunction, die, or become cancerous. Related to image 3493.

A crystal of porcine trypsin protein created for X-ray crystallography, which can reveal detailed, three-dimensional protein structures.

This image shows the extracellular matrix (ECM) on the surface of a soleus (lower calf) muscle in light brown and blood vessels in pink. Near the bottom of the photo, a vessel is opened up to reveal red blood cells. Scientists know less about the ECM in muscle than in other tissues, but it's increasingly clear that the ECM is critical to muscle function, and disruption of the ECM has been associated with many muscle disorders. The ECM in muscles stores and releases growth factors, suggesting that it might play a role in cellular communication.

Active site of E. coli response regulator PhoB.